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2.07:_Ions_and_Ionic_Compounds
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<div class="box-objectives"> <span id="Learning_Objectives"></span><span id="Learning_Objectives"></span><h5 class="box-legend"><span class="lt-icon-default">Learning Objectives</span></h5> <ul> <li class="lt-chem-21703">Explain the bonding nature of ionic compounds.</li> <li class="lt-chem-21703">Relating microscopic bonding properties to macroscopic solid properties.</li> </ul> </div> <p class="lt-chem-21703">The substances described in the preceding discussion are composed of molecules that are electrically neutral; that is, the number of positively-charged protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of negatively-charged electrons. In contrast, ions are atoms or assemblies of atoms that have a net electrical charge. Ions that contain fewer electrons than protons have a net positive charge and are called cations. Conversely, ions that contain more electrons than protons have a net negative charge and are called anions. Ionic compounds contain both cations and anions in a ratio that results in no net electrical charge.</p> <p class="lt-chem-21703">In covalent compounds, electrons are shared between bonded atoms and are simultaneously attracted to more than one nucleus. In contrast, ionic compounds contain cations and anions rather than discrete neutral molecules. Ionic compounds are held together by the attractive electrostatic interactions between cations and anions. In an ionic compound, the cations and anions are arranged in space to form an extended three-dimensional array that maximizes the number of attractive electrostatic interactions and minimizes the number of repulsive electrostatic interactions (<span class="external">Figure <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="98" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-99-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-99-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-99-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path><path id="MJX-99-NCM-N-31" d="M269 666C228 624 168 603 89 603L89 564C141 564 184 572 217 588L217 82C217 64 213 52 204 47C195 42 170 39 130 39L95 39L95 0C120 2 174 3 257 3C340 3 394 2 419 0L419 39L384 39C343 39 318 42 310 47C302 52 297 64 297 82L297 636C297 660 295 666 269 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" 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data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="2E" href="#MJX-99-NCM-N-2E"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-99-NCM-N-31"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{1};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></span>). As shown in <span class="external">Equation <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="99" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-100-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-100-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-100-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path><path id="MJX-100-NCM-N-31" d="M269 666C228 624 168 603 89 603L89 564C141 564 184 572 217 588L217 82C217 64 213 52 204 47C195 42 170 39 130 39L95 39L95 0C120 2 174 3 257 3C340 3 394 2 419 0L419 39L384 39C343 39 318 42 310 47C302 52 297 64 297 82L297 636C297 660 295 666 269 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\ref{Eq1}" data-semantic-structure="0"><a href="/Sandboxes/johnnyphung/chemistry_central/02:_Atoms_Molecules_and_Ions/2.07:_Ions_and_Ionic_Compounds#mjx-eqn:Eq1"><g data-mml-node="mrow" data-latex="\ref{Eq1}" class="MathJax_ref"><rect data-hitbox="true" fill="none" stroke="none" pointer-events="all" width="2056" height="698" x="0" y="-22"></rect><g 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data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:unit;nemeth:number;depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\ref{Eq1};href:#mjx-eqn%3AEq1" data-semantic-postfix="link" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true">2.7.1</mtext></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></span>, the electrostatic energy of the interaction between two charged particles is proportional to the product of the charges on the particles and inversely proportional to the distance between them:</p> <p class="mt-align-center lt-chem-21703"><mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" display="true" width="full" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="100" style="font-size: 85%; min-width: 45.198ex; position: relative;"><svg width="100%" height="4.701ex" role="img" focusable="false" data-mjx-viewbox="0 -1289 19977.7 2078" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.785ex; min-width: 45.198ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-101-NCM-N-65" d="M415 251C415 366 348 448 236 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data-latex="\text{2.7.1}" data-semantic-type="text" data-semantic-role="annotation" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:unit;depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\text{2.7.1}" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true">2.7.1</mtext><mtext data-latex="\text{)}" data-semantic-type="fence" data-semantic-role="close" data-semantic-annotation="general:text;depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\text{)}" data-semantic-operator="fenced" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true">)</mtext></mrow></mtd><mtd><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="relseq" data-semantic-role="equality" data-semantic-annotation="depth:3" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="5,16" data-semantic-content="6" data-semantic-parent="19" data-semantic-owns="5 6 16" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true"><mtext data-latex="\text {electrostatic energy}" data-semantic-type="text" data-semantic-role="text" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="factor:relation;clearspeak:unit;nemeth:number;depth:4" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="17" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\text {electrostatic energy}" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true">electrostatic energy</mtext><mo data-latex="\propto" data-semantic-type="relation" data-semantic-role="equality" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:4" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="17" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\propto" data-semantic-operator="relseq,∝" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true">∝</mo><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{}"><mfrac data-semantic-type="fraction" data-semantic-role="division" data-semantic-annotation="depth:4" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="14,15" data-semantic-parent="17" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="14 15" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true"><mrow data-semantic-type="infixop" data-semantic-role="implicit" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:unit;depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="9,12" data-semantic-content="13" data-semantic-parent="16" data-semantic-owns="9 13 12" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true"><msub data-latex="Q_1" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="7,8" data-semantic-parent="14" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_1" data-semantic-owns="7 8" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="9" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">Q</mi><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="9" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></msub><mo data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="multiplication" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="14" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="infixop,⁢" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true">⁢</mo><msub data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="10,11" data-semantic-parent="14" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_2" data-semantic-owns="10 11" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="12" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">Q</mi><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="12" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">2</mn></msub></mrow><mi data-latex="r" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="16" data-semantic-attributes="latex:r" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true">r</mi></mfrac></mrow></mrow></mtd></mlabeledtr></mtable></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></p> <p class="lt-chem-21703">where <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" 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data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_1" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">Q</mi><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></msub></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container> and <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="102" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="2.777ex" height="2.034ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -705 1227.6 899" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.439ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-103-NCM-I-1D444" d="M306-24C335-24 366-19 399-10C396-48 395-72 395-81C395-156 424-194 481-194C542-194 589-145 612-100C637-48 650-14 650 2C650 11 645 16 635 16C628 16 623 12 620 3C605-43 564-90 508-90C457-90 450-49 442 6C526 39 597 96 654 178C711 260 740 345 740 434C740 513 717 577 670 628C623 679 561 705 484 705C431 705 378 692 325 665C217 612 138 528 87 415C62 358 49 302 49 245C49 88 151-24 306-24M645 466C645 405 630 335 600 254C565 161 511 92 436 48C432 70 426 90 418 108C405 138 381 153 346 153C291 153 241 103 241 48C241 39 242 30 244 23C177 54 144 117 144 213C144 255 152 306 169 366C204 493 267 583 358 636C401 660 441 672 478 672C588 672 645 581 645 466M346 123C383 123 402 96 402 43C402 34 399 29 393 27C365 15 338 9 312 9C284 9 270 22 270 48C270 86 308 123 346 123Z"></path><path id="MJX-103-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-structure="(2 0 1)"><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="2" data-semantic-children="0,1" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_2" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="0" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D444" href="#MJX-103-NCM-I-1D444"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mn" transform="translate(824,-150) scale(0.707)" data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-id="1" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-103-NCM-N-32"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-structure="(2 0 1)"><msub data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_2" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">Q</mi><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn></msub></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container> are the electrical charges on particles 1 and 2, and <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="103" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="1.02ex" height="1.025ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -442 451 453" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.025ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-104-NCM-I-1D45F" d="M436 374C436 416 395 442 351 442C302 442 261 419 227 372C217 411 183 442 136 442C95 442 65 410 44 345C34 312 29 293 29 287C29 278 34 273 45 273C50 273 53 274 56 276C61 285 64 292 65 299C83 375 106 413 133 413C150 413 159 399 159 371C159 358 154 331 144 290L87 63C84 50 78 24 78 19C78-1 89-11 110-11C130-11 143-1 150 19L169 91C180 134 187 162 190 175L221 303C223 311 231 324 244 343C271 381 302 413 351 413C363 413 373 411 382 406C352 397 337 378 337 351C337 325 351 312 378 312C411 312 436 341 436 374Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="r" data-semantic-structure="0"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="r" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:1" data-semantic-id="0" data-semantic-attributes="latex:r" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D45F" href="#MJX-104-NCM-I-1D45F"></use></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="r" data-semantic-structure="0"><mi data-latex="r" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-attributes="latex:r" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true">r</mi></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container> is the distance between them. When <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="104" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="2.777ex" height="2.034ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -705 1227.6 899" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.439ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-105-NCM-I-1D444" d="M306-24C335-24 366-19 399-10C396-48 395-72 395-81C395-156 424-194 481-194C542-194 589-145 612-100C637-48 650-14 650 2C650 11 645 16 635 16C628 16 623 12 620 3C605-43 564-90 508-90C457-90 450-49 442 6C526 39 597 96 654 178C711 260 740 345 740 434C740 513 717 577 670 628C623 679 561 705 484 705C431 705 378 692 325 665C217 612 138 528 87 415C62 358 49 302 49 245C49 88 151-24 306-24M645 466C645 405 630 335 600 254C565 161 511 92 436 48C432 70 426 90 418 108C405 138 381 153 346 153C291 153 241 103 241 48C241 39 242 30 244 23C177 54 144 117 144 213C144 255 152 306 169 366C204 493 267 583 358 636C401 660 441 672 478 672C588 672 645 581 645 466M346 123C383 123 402 96 402 43C402 34 399 29 393 27C365 15 338 9 312 9C284 9 270 22 270 48C270 86 308 123 346 123Z"></path><path id="MJX-105-NCM-N-31" d="M269 666C228 624 168 603 89 603L89 564C141 564 184 572 217 588L217 82C217 64 213 52 204 47C195 42 170 39 130 39L95 39L95 0C120 2 174 3 257 3C340 3 394 2 419 0L419 39L384 39C343 39 318 42 310 47C302 52 297 64 297 82L297 636C297 660 295 666 269 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="Q_1" data-semantic-structure="(2 0 1)"><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="Q_1" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="2" data-semantic-children="0,1" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_1" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="0" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D444" href="#MJX-105-NCM-I-1D444"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mn" transform="translate(824,-150) scale(0.707)" data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-id="1" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-105-NCM-N-31"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="Q_1" data-semantic-structure="(2 0 1)"><msub data-latex="Q_1" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_1" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">Q</mi><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></msub></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container> and <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="105" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="2.777ex" height="2.034ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -705 1227.6 899" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.439ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-106-NCM-I-1D444" d="M306-24C335-24 366-19 399-10C396-48 395-72 395-81C395-156 424-194 481-194C542-194 589-145 612-100C637-48 650-14 650 2C650 11 645 16 635 16C628 16 623 12 620 3C605-43 564-90 508-90C457-90 450-49 442 6C526 39 597 96 654 178C711 260 740 345 740 434C740 513 717 577 670 628C623 679 561 705 484 705C431 705 378 692 325 665C217 612 138 528 87 415C62 358 49 302 49 245C49 88 151-24 306-24M645 466C645 405 630 335 600 254C565 161 511 92 436 48C432 70 426 90 418 108C405 138 381 153 346 153C291 153 241 103 241 48C241 39 242 30 244 23C177 54 144 117 144 213C144 255 152 306 169 366C204 493 267 583 358 636C401 660 441 672 478 672C588 672 645 581 645 466M346 123C383 123 402 96 402 43C402 34 399 29 393 27C365 15 338 9 312 9C284 9 270 22 270 48C270 86 308 123 346 123Z"></path><path id="MJX-106-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-structure="(2 0 1)"><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="2" data-semantic-children="0,1" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_2" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="0" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D444" href="#MJX-106-NCM-I-1D444"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mn" transform="translate(824,-150) scale(0.707)" data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-id="1" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-106-NCM-N-32"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-structure="(2 0 1)"><msub data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_2" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">Q</mi><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn></msub></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container> are both positive, corresponding to the charges on cations, the cations repel each other and the electrostatic energy is positive. When <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="106" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="2.777ex" height="2.034ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -705 1227.6 899" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.439ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-107-NCM-I-1D444" d="M306-24C335-24 366-19 399-10C396-48 395-72 395-81C395-156 424-194 481-194C542-194 589-145 612-100C637-48 650-14 650 2C650 11 645 16 635 16C628 16 623 12 620 3C605-43 564-90 508-90C457-90 450-49 442 6C526 39 597 96 654 178C711 260 740 345 740 434C740 513 717 577 670 628C623 679 561 705 484 705C431 705 378 692 325 665C217 612 138 528 87 415C62 358 49 302 49 245C49 88 151-24 306-24M645 466C645 405 630 335 600 254C565 161 511 92 436 48C432 70 426 90 418 108C405 138 381 153 346 153C291 153 241 103 241 48C241 39 242 30 244 23C177 54 144 117 144 213C144 255 152 306 169 366C204 493 267 583 358 636C401 660 441 672 478 672C588 672 645 581 645 466M346 123C383 123 402 96 402 43C402 34 399 29 393 27C365 15 338 9 312 9C284 9 270 22 270 48C270 86 308 123 346 123Z"></path><path id="MJX-107-NCM-N-31" d="M269 666C228 624 168 603 89 603L89 564C141 564 184 572 217 588L217 82C217 64 213 52 204 47C195 42 170 39 130 39L95 39L95 0C120 2 174 3 257 3C340 3 394 2 419 0L419 39L384 39C343 39 318 42 310 47C302 52 297 64 297 82L297 636C297 660 295 666 269 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="Q_1" data-semantic-structure="(2 0 1)"><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="Q_1" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="2" data-semantic-children="0,1" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_1" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="0" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D444" href="#MJX-107-NCM-I-1D444"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mn" transform="translate(824,-150) scale(0.707)" data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-id="1" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-107-NCM-N-31"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="Q_1" data-semantic-structure="(2 0 1)"><msub data-latex="Q_1" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_1" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">Q</mi><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></msub></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container> and <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="107" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="2.777ex" height="2.034ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -705 1227.6 899" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.439ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-108-NCM-I-1D444" d="M306-24C335-24 366-19 399-10C396-48 395-72 395-81C395-156 424-194 481-194C542-194 589-145 612-100C637-48 650-14 650 2C650 11 645 16 635 16C628 16 623 12 620 3C605-43 564-90 508-90C457-90 450-49 442 6C526 39 597 96 654 178C711 260 740 345 740 434C740 513 717 577 670 628C623 679 561 705 484 705C431 705 378 692 325 665C217 612 138 528 87 415C62 358 49 302 49 245C49 88 151-24 306-24M645 466C645 405 630 335 600 254C565 161 511 92 436 48C432 70 426 90 418 108C405 138 381 153 346 153C291 153 241 103 241 48C241 39 242 30 244 23C177 54 144 117 144 213C144 255 152 306 169 366C204 493 267 583 358 636C401 660 441 672 478 672C588 672 645 581 645 466M346 123C383 123 402 96 402 43C402 34 399 29 393 27C365 15 338 9 312 9C284 9 270 22 270 48C270 86 308 123 346 123Z"></path><path id="MJX-108-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-structure="(2 0 1)"><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="2" data-semantic-children="0,1" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_2" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="0" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D444" href="#MJX-108-NCM-I-1D444"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mn" transform="translate(824,-150) scale(0.707)" data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-id="1" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-108-NCM-N-32"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-structure="(2 0 1)"><msub data-latex="Q_2" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q_2" data-semantic-owns="0 1" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="Q" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:Q" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">Q</mi><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn></msub></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container> are both negative, corresponding to the charges on anions, the anions repel each other and the electrostatic energy is again positive. The electrostatic energy is negative only when the charges have opposite signs; that is, positively charged species are attracted to negatively charged species and vice versa.</p> <figure><img alt="Diagram illustrating atomic structure and chemical reactions, featuring molecules and interactions among particles." class="internal" loading="lazy" src="https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/128310/clipboard_e9cb431b956f053947d3e4df4ccccc2c8.png?revision=1" width="954" height="367" /> <figcaption>Figure <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="108" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-109-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-109-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-109-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path><path id="MJX-109-NCM-N-31" d="M269 666C228 624 168 603 89 603L89 564C141 564 184 572 217 588L217 82C217 64 213 52 204 47C195 42 170 39 130 39L95 39L95 0C120 2 174 3 257 3C340 3 394 2 419 0L419 39L384 39C343 39 318 42 310 47C302 52 297 64 297 82L297 636C297 660 295 666 269 666Z"></path></defs><g 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data-latex="{.}" transform="translate(500,0)"><g data-mml-node="mo" data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="1" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="2E" href="#MJX-109-NCM-N-2E"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="2" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(778,0)"><use data-c="37" href="#MJX-109-NCM-N-37"></use></g><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}" transform="translate(1278,0)"><g data-mml-node="mo" data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="3" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="2E" href="#MJX-109-NCM-N-2E"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-109-NCM-N-31"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{1};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container>: Covalent and Ionic Bonding. (a) In molecular hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>), two hydrogen atoms share two electrons to form a covalent bond. (b) The ionic compound NaCl forms when electrons from sodium atoms are transferred to chlorine atoms. The resulting Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>−</sup> ions form a three-dimensional solid that is held together by attractive electrostatic interactions.</figcaption> <figcaption>A: Covalent bonding between two H atoms. B: Ionic bonding between sodium and chlorine, forming a lattice structure.</figcaption> </figure> <div class="box-note"> <p class="lt-chem-21703">Ionic compounds contain both cations and anions in a ratio that results in zero electrical charge.</p> </div> <p class="lt-chem-21703">As shown in <span class="external">Figure <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="109" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-110-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 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data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-110-NCM-N-32"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{2}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="2}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{2};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></span>, the strength of the interaction is proportional to the magnitude of the charges and decreases as the distance between the particles increases. These energetic factors are discussed in greater quantitative detail later.</p> <figure><img alt="Diagram illustrating charge distribution with increasing charge differences, showing varying arrangements of spheres." class="internal" loading="lazy" src="https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/128311/clipboard_eb3eac2b922a33e35b9db86e87afa383b.png?revision=1" /> <figcaption>Figure <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="110" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-111-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-111-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-111-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\PageIndex{2}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="2}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="5" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" 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href="#MJX-111-NCM-N-2E"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="2" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(778,0)"><use data-c="37" href="#MJX-111-NCM-N-37"></use></g><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}" transform="translate(1278,0)"><g data-mml-node="mo" data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="3" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="2E" href="#MJX-111-NCM-N-2E"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-111-NCM-N-32"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{2}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="2}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{2};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container>: The Effect of Charge and Distance on the Strength of Electrostatic Interactions. As the charge on ions increases or the distance between ions decreases, so does the strength of the attractive (−…+) or repulsive (−…− or +…+) interactions. The strength of these interactions is represented by the thickness of the arrows.</figcaption> </figure> <div class="box-note"> <p class="lt-chem-21703">If the electrostatic energy is positive, the particles repel each other; if the electrostatic energy is negative, the particles are attracted to each other.</p> </div> <p class="lt-chem-21703">One example of an ionic compound is sodium chloride (NaCl; <span class="external">Figure <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="111" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-112-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 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transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="33" href="#MJX-112-NCM-N-33"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{3}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="3}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{3};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="3" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:3" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">3</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></span>), formed from sodium and chlorine. In forming chemical compounds, many elements have a tendency to gain or lose enough electrons to attain the same number of electrons as the noble gas closest to them in the periodic table. When sodium and chlorine come into contact, each sodium atom gives up an electron to become a Na<sup>+</sup> ion, with 11 protons in its nucleus but only 10 electrons (like neon), and each chlorine atom gains an electron to become a Cl<sup>−</sup> ion, with 17 protons in its nucleus and 18 electrons (like argon), as shown in part (b) in <span class="external">Figure <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="112" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-113-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 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data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{1};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></span>. Solid sodium chloride contains equal numbers of cations (Na<sup>+</sup>) and anions (Cl<sup>−</sup>), thus maintaining electrical neutrality. Each Na<sup>+</sup> ion is surrounded by 6 Cl<sup>−</sup> ions, and each Cl<sup>−</sup> ion is surrounded by 6 Na<sup>+</sup> ions. Because of the large number of attractive Na<sup>+</sup>Cl<sup>−</sup> interactions, the total attractive electrostatic energy in NaCl is great.</p> <figure><img alt="Depiction of crystalline material chunks with an inset showing a 3D atomic structure of green and purple spheres." class="internal" loading="lazy" src="https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/128312/clipboard_e775df78d5cbdcdb8ab62601a7b86bc8e.png?revision=1" width="307" height="344" /> <figcaption>Figure <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="113" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-114-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-114-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-114-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path><path id="MJX-114-NCM-N-33" d="M303 353C369 378 431 441 431 526C431 569 410 604 369 631C333 654 292 666 246 666C201 666 162 654 127 631C88 605 68 571 68 528C68 495 90 472 122 472C154 472 176 495 176 527C176 560 157 578 119 580C145 615 186 633 242 633C302 633 332 598 332 527C332 485 324 450 309 421C282 373 245 364 183 364C171 362 165 357 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transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="33" href="#MJX-114-NCM-N-33"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{3}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="3}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{3};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="3" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:3" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">3</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container>: Sodium Chloride: an Ionic Solid. The planes of an NaCl crystal reflect the regular three-dimensional arrangement of its Na+ (purple) and Cl− (green) ions.</figcaption> </figure> <p class="lt-chem-21703">Consistent with a tendency to have the same number of electrons as the nearest noble gas, when forming ions, elements in groups 1, 2, and 3 tend to lose one, two, and three electrons, respectively, to form cations, such as Na<sup>+</sup> and Mg<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>. They then have the same number of electrons as the nearest noble gas: neon. Similarly, K<sup>+</sup>, Ca<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup>, and Sc<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup> have 18 electrons each, like the nearest noble gas: argon. In addition, the elements in group 13 lose three electrons to form cations, such as Al<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>, again attaining the same number of electrons as the noble gas closest to them in the periodic table. Because the lanthanides and actinides formally belong to group 3, the most common ion formed by these elements is M<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>, where M represents the metal. Conversely, elements in groups 17, 16, and 15 often react to gain one, two, and three electrons, respectively, to form ions such as Cl<sup>−</sup>, S<sup>2−</sup>, and P<sup>3−</sup>. Ions such as these, which contain only a single atom, are called monatomic ions. The charges of most monatomic ions derived from the main group elements can be predicted by simply looking at the periodic table and counting how many columns an element lies from the extreme left or right. For example, barium (in Group 2) forms Ba<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup> to have the same number of electrons as its nearest noble gas, xenon; oxygen (in Group 16) forms O<sup>2−</sup> to have the same number of electrons as neon; and cesium (in Group 1) forms Cs<sup>+</sup>, which has the same number of electrons as xenon. Note that this method is ineffective for most of the transition metals<span class="external">.</span> Some common monatomic ions are listed in <span class="external">Table <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="114" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-115-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-115-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-115-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path><path id="MJX-115-NCM-N-31" d="M269 666C228 624 168 603 89 603L89 564C141 564 184 572 217 588L217 82C217 64 213 52 204 47C195 42 170 39 130 39L95 39L95 0C120 2 174 3 257 3C340 3 394 2 419 0L419 39L384 39C343 39 318 42 310 47C302 52 297 64 297 82L297 636C297 660 295 666 269 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" 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href="#MJX-115-NCM-N-2E"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-115-NCM-N-31"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{1};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></span>.</p> <div class="box-note"> <p class="lt-chem-21703">Elements in Groups 1, 2, and 3 tend to form 1+, 2+, and 3+ ions, respectively; elements in Groups 15, 16, and 17 tend to form 3−, 2−, and 1− ions, respectively.</p> </div> <table class="mt-responsive-table" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <caption>Table <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="115" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-116-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-116-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-116-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path><path id="MJX-116-NCM-N-31" d="M269 666C228 624 168 603 89 603L89 564C141 564 184 572 217 588L217 82C217 64 213 52 204 47C195 42 170 39 130 39L95 39L95 0C120 2 174 3 257 3C340 3 394 2 419 0L419 39L384 39C343 39 318 42 310 47C302 52 297 64 297 82L297 636C297 660 295 666 269 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="5" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{1};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="0" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-116-NCM-N-32"></use></g><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}" transform="translate(500,0)"><g data-mml-node="mo" data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="1" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="2E" href="#MJX-116-NCM-N-2E"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="2" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(778,0)"><use data-c="37" href="#MJX-116-NCM-N-37"></use></g><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}" transform="translate(1278,0)"><g data-mml-node="mo" data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="3" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="2E" href="#MJX-116-NCM-N-2E"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-116-NCM-N-31"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{1};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container>: Some Common Monatomic Ions and Their Names</caption> <thead> <tr> <th style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"><strong>Group 1</strong></th> <th style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"><strong>Group 2</strong></th> <th style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"><strong>Group 3</strong></th> <th style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"><strong>Group 13</strong></th> <th style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"><strong>Group 15</strong></th> <th style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"><strong>Group 16</strong></th> <th style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"><strong>Group 17</strong></th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Li<sup>+</sup> lithium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 2" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Be<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup> beryllium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 3" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"> </td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 13" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"> </td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 15" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">N<sup>3−</sup> nitride (azide)</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 16" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">O<sup>2−</sup> oxide</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 17" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">F<sup>−</sup> fluoride</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Na<sup>+</sup> sodium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 2" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Mg<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup> magnesium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 3" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"> </td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 13" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Al<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup> aluminum</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 15" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">P<sup>3−</sup> phosphide</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 16" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">S<sup>2−</sup> sulfide</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 17" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Cl<sup>−</sup> chloride</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">K<sup>+</sup> potassium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 2" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Ca<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup> calcium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 3" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Sc<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup> scandium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 13" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Ga<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup> gallium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 15" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">As<sup>3</sup><sup>−</sup> arsenide</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 16" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Se<sup>2</sup><sup>−</sup> selenide</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 17" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Br<sup>−</sup> bromide</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Rb<sup>+</sup> rubidium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 2" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Sr<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup> strontium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 3" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Y<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup> yttrium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 13" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">In<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup> indium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 15" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"> </td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 16" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Te<sup>2</sup><sup>−</sup> telluride</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 17" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">I<sup>−</sup> iodide</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 1" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Cs<sup>+</sup> cesium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 2" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Ba<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup> barium</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 3" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">La<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup> lanthanum</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 13" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"> </td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 15" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"> </td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 16" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"> </td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Group 17" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;"> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div class="box-example"> <span id="Example_.5C(.5CPageIndex.7B1.7D.5C)"></span><span id="Example_.5C(.5CPageIndex.7B1.7D.5C)"></span><h5 class="box-legend"><span class="lt-icon-default">Example <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="116" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-117-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-117-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-117-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path><path id="MJX-117-NCM-N-31" d="M269 666C228 624 168 603 89 603L89 564C141 564 184 572 217 588L217 82C217 64 213 52 204 47C195 42 170 39 130 39L95 39L95 0C120 2 174 3 257 3C340 3 394 2 419 0L419 39L384 39C343 39 318 42 310 47C302 52 297 64 297 82L297 636C297 660 295 666 269 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="5" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{1};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" 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data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-117-NCM-N-31"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{1};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></span></h5> <p class="lt-chem-21703">Predict the charge on the most common monatomic ion formed by each element.</p> <ol start="1" style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;"> <li class="lt-chem-21703">aluminum, used in the quantum logic clock, the world’s most precise clock</li> <li class="lt-chem-21703">selenium, used to make ruby-colored glass</li> <li class="lt-chem-21703">yttrium, used to make high-performance spark plugs</li> </ol> <p class="lt-chem-21703"><strong>Given</strong>: element</p> <p class="lt-chem-21703"><strong>Asked for</strong>: ionic charge</p> <p class="lt-chem-21703"><strong>Strategy</strong>:</p> <ol start="1" style="list-style-type: upper-alpha;"> <li class="lt-chem-21703">Identify the group in the periodic table to which the element belongs. Based on its location in the periodic table, decide whether the element is a metal, which tends to lose electrons; a nonmetal, which tends to gain electrons; or a semimetal, which can do either.</li> <li class="lt-chem-21703">After locating the noble gas that is closest to the element, determine the number of electrons the element must gain or lose to have the same number of electrons as the nearest noble gas.</li> </ol> <p class="lt-chem-21703"><strong>Solution</strong>:</p> <ol start="1" style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;"> <li class="lt-chem-21703"><strong>A</strong> Aluminum is a metal in group 13; consequently, it will tend to lose electrons. <strong>B</strong> The nearest noble gas to aluminum is neon. Aluminum will lose three electrons to form the Al<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup> ion, which has the same number of electrons as neon.</li> <li class="lt-chem-21703"><strong>A</strong> Selenium is a nonmetal in group 16, so it will tend to gain electrons. <strong>B</strong> The nearest noble gas is krypton, so we predict that selenium will gain two electrons to form the Se<sup>2</sup><sup>−</sup> ion, which has the same number of electrons as krypton.</li> <li class="lt-chem-21703"><strong>A </strong>Yttrium is in group 3, and elements in this group are metals that tend to lose electrons. <strong>B</strong> The nearest noble gas to yttrium is krypton, so yttrium is predicted to lose three electrons to form Y<sup>3</sup><sup>+</sup>, which has the same number of electrons as krypton.</li> </ol> </div> <div class="box-exercise"> <span id="Exercise_.5C(.5CPageIndex.7B1.7D.5C)"></span><span id="Exercise_.5C(.5CPageIndex.7B1.7D.5C)"></span><h5 class="box-legend"><span class="lt-icon-default">Exercise <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="117" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-118-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-118-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-118-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path><path id="MJX-118-NCM-N-31" d="M269 666C228 624 168 603 89 603L89 564C141 564 184 572 217 588L217 82C217 64 213 52 204 47C195 42 170 39 130 39L95 39L95 0C120 2 174 3 257 3C340 3 394 2 419 0L419 39L384 39C343 39 318 42 310 47C302 52 297 64 297 82L297 636C297 660 295 666 269 666Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="5" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{1};texclass:ORD" 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data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="2" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(778,0)"><use data-c="37" href="#MJX-118-NCM-N-37"></use></g><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}" transform="translate(1278,0)"><g data-mml-node="mo" data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="3" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="2E" href="#MJX-118-NCM-N-2E"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-118-NCM-N-31"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{1}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="1}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{1};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="1" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:1" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">1</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></span></h5> <p class="lt-chem-21703">Predict the charge on the most common monatomic ion formed by each element.</p> <ol start="1" style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;"> <li class="lt-chem-21703">calcium, used to prevent osteoporosis</li> <li class="lt-chem-21703">iodine, required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones</li> <li class="lt-chem-21703">zirconium, widely used in nuclear reactors</li> </ol> <dl> <dt><strong class="emphasis bold">Answer a</strong></dt> <dd> <p class="lt-chem-21703">Ca<sup>2</sup><sup>+</sup></p> </dd> <dt><strong class="emphasis bold">Answer b</strong></dt> <dd> <p class="lt-chem-21703">I<sup>−</sup></p> </dd> <dt><strong class="emphasis bold">Answer c</strong></dt> <dd> <p class="lt-chem-21703">Zr<sup>4</sup><sup>+</sup></p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div class="mt-video-widget mt-video-width-55"><div style="width: 100%; height: 0px; position: relative; padding-bottom: 56.25%;"><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/mh71O8g40Kc?vq=hd1080" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="true" style="width: 100%; height: 100%; position: absolute"></iframe></div></div> <p class="lt-chem-21703 mt-align-center">Ions of Atoms: <a target="_blank" href="https://youtu.be/mh71O8g40Kc" rel="external noopener nofollow" class="link-https">Ions of Atoms, YouTube(opens in new window)</a><span> [youtu.be]</span></p> <span id="Physical_Properties_of_Ionic_and_Covalent_Compounds"></span><span id="Physical_Properties_of_Ionic_and_Covalent_Compounds"></span><h2 class="lt-chem-21703">Physical Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds</h2> <p class="lt-chem-21703">In general, ionic and covalent compounds have different physical properties. Ionic compounds form hard crystalline solids that melt at high temperatures and are resistant to evaporation. These properties stem from the characteristic internal structure of an ionic solid, illustrated schematically in <span class="external">Figure <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="118" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="5.848ex" height="1.581ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -677 2585 699" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-119-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-119-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-119-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path><path id="MJX-119-NCM-N-34" d="M353 677C344 677 336 672 330 663L28 199L28 163L289 163L289 81C289 63 285 51 278 46C271 41 252 39 219 39L194 39L194 0C223 2 269 3 331 3C393 3 439 2 468 0L468 39L443 39C410 39 391 41 384 46C377 51 373 63 373 81L373 163L471 163L471 202L373 202L373 660C373 670 366 677 353 677M295 553L295 202L67 202Z"></path><path id="MJX-119-NCM-N-2062" d=""></path><path id="MJX-119-NCM-I-1D44E" d="M498 144C498 153 493 158 482 158C474 158 468 151 465 137C445 58 421 18 394 18C377 18 368 32 368 60C368 73 372 97 381 132L438 357C443 376 445 387 445 392C445 412 434 422 412 422C391 422 377 410 370 387C349 424 319 442 281 442C216 442 159 409 109 343C63 281 40 217 40 150C40 63 91-11 175-11C218-11 260 12 300 58C311 20 345-11 392-11C461-11 482 70 498 144M341 374C350 353 355 339 355 330C355 326 354 321 353 314L304 122C301 111 294 99 285 87C248 41 212 18 177 18C138 18 118 48 118 107C118 131 124 167 136 215C157 300 187 357 224 388C244 405 263 413 282 413C309 413 329 400 341 374Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\PageIndex{4a}" data-semantic-structure="(8 0 1 2 3 (7 4 6 5))"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="4a}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="8" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,7" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{4a};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 7" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" 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data-semantic-parent="8" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="8" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="8" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="8" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="infixop" data-semantic-role="implicit" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;clearspeak:unit;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="4,5" data-semantic-content="6" data-semantic-parent="8" data-semantic-owns="4 6 5" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="4" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:3" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="7" data-semantic-attributes="latex:4" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true">4</mn><mo data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="multiplication" data-semantic-annotation="depth:3" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="7" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="infixop,⁢" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true">⁢</mo><mi data-latex="a" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:3" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="7" data-semantic-attributes="latex:a" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true">a</mi></mrow></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></span> which shows the three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions held together by strong electrostatic attractions. In contrast, as shown in <span class="external">Figure <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="119" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="5.622ex" height="1.62ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -694 2485 716" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-120-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-120-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-120-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 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data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(500,0)"><use data-c="1D44F" href="#MJX-120-NCM-I-1D44F"></use></g></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{4b}" data-semantic-structure="(8 0 1 2 3 (7 4 6 5))"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="4b}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,7" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{4b};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 7" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="8" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="8" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="8" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="8" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="infixop" data-semantic-role="implicit" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;clearspeak:unit;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="4,5" data-semantic-content="6" data-semantic-parent="8" data-semantic-owns="4 6 5" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="4" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:3" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="7" data-semantic-attributes="latex:4" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true">4</mn><mo data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="multiplication" data-semantic-annotation="depth:3" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="7" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="infixop,⁢" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true">⁢</mo><mi data-latex="b" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:3" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="7" data-semantic-attributes="latex:b" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true">b</mi></mrow></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></span> most covalent compounds consist of discrete molecules held together by comparatively weak intermolecular forces (the forces between molecules), even though the atoms within each molecule are held together by strong intramolecular covalent bonds (the forces within the molecule).</p> <figure><img alt="Diagram comparing crystal lattice structures: left shows green spheres, right features white spheres, illustrating atomic arrangements." class="internal" loading="lazy" src="https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/128309/clipboard_eff79350281c12c5a3f2cd14443f7df66.png?revision=1" /> <figcaption>Figure <mjx-container class="MathJax 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data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="4" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:4" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">4</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container>: Interactions in Ionic and Covalent Solids. (a) The positively and negatively charged ions in an ionic solid such as sodium chloride (NaCl) are held together by strong electrostatic interactions. 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data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,3" data-semantic-content="4" data-semantic-attributes="latex:CH_4" data-semantic-owns="0 4 3" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 4 (3 1 2))"><mi data-latex="C" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">C</mi><mo data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="multiplication" data-semantic-annotation="depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="infixop,⁢" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">⁢</mo><msub data-latex="H_4" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="1,2" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H_4" data-semantic-owns="1 2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="H" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:3" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true">H</mi><mn data-latex="4" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:3" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:4" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true">4</mn></msub></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container>) molecules in solid methane, a prototypical molecular solid, the methane molecules are held together in the solid only by relatively weak intermolecular forces, even though the atoms within each methane molecule are held together by strong covalent bonds.</figcaption> <figcaption>A: Ionic solid of sodium and chloride ions, showing strong electrostatic interactions. B: Molecular solid consisting of methane, showing weak intermolecular forces.</figcaption> </figure> <p class="lt-chem-21703">Covalent substances can be gases, liquids, or solids at room temperature and pressure, depending on the strength of the intermolecular interactions. Covalent molecular solids tend to form soft crystals that melt at low temperatures and evaporate easily. Some covalent substances, however, are not molecular but consist of infinite three-dimensional arrays of covalently bonded atoms and include some of the hardest materials known, such as diamond. This topic will be addressed elsewhere. The covalent bonds that hold the atoms together in the molecules are unaffected when covalent substances melt or evaporate, so a liquid or vapor of independent molecules is formed. For example, at room temperature, methane, the major constituent of natural gas, is a gas that is composed of discrete <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="122" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.318ex" height="1.959ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -716 1908.6 866" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.339ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-123-NCM-N-43" d="M665 443L665 677C665 696 660 705 650 705C643 705 637 700 631 691L584 622C554 653 522 675 487 689C461 700 433 705 403 705C306 705 223 670 156 598C89 526 56 441 56 342C56 243 89 158 155 87C222 14 305-22 403-22C474-22 536 3 588 53C640 103 665 163 665 234C665 248 659 255 648 255C638 255 633 251 633 242C633 241 633 239 632 236C626 116 540 17 415 17C378 17 341 27 302 47C210 97 166 193 166 341C166 481 215 589 302 636C341 656 378 666 414 666C538 666 609 553 626 435C627 422 634 415 645 415C665 415 665 423 665 443Z"></path><path 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202L373 202L373 660C373 670 366 677 353 677M295 553L295 202L67 202Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\ce{CH4}" data-semantic-structure="(3 0 2)"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{\mathrm{CH}{\vphantom{A}}_{\smash[t]{4}}}" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="identifier" data-semantic-annotation="collapsed:identifier;depth:1" data-semantic-id="3" data-semantic-children="0,2" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\ce{CH4};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 2" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="\mathrm{CH}"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="CH" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="unknown" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="0" data-semantic-parent="3" 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data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\mathrm{CH};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">CH</mi></mrow><msub data-latex="{\vphantom{A}}_{\smash[t]{4}}"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{\vphantom{A}}"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="\vphantom{A}"><mpadded width="0"><mphantom><mi data-latex="A">A</mi></mphantom></mpadded></mrow></mrow><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{\smash[t]{4}}"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="\smash[t]{4}"><mpadded height="0"><mn data-latex="4" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{\smash[t]{4}};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">4</mn></mpadded></mrow></mrow></msub></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container> molecules. A comparison of the different physical properties of ionic compounds and covalent molecular substances is given in <span class="external">Table <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="123" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-124-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-124-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-124-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\PageIndex{2}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="2}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="5" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{2};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" 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data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-124-NCM-N-32"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{2}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="2}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{2};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container>.</span></p> <table class="mt-responsive-table" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <caption>Table <mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="124" style="font-size: 85%; position: relative;"><svg width="4.652ex" height="1.579ex" role="img" focusable="false" viewbox="0 -676 2056 698" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.05ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-125-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-125-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-125-NCM-N-37" d="M475 604C482 613 485 626 485 644L243 644C174 644 135 648 128 657C125 660 122 667 120 676L89 676L55 464L88 464C98 520 106 550 112 555C115 558 146 560 205 560L401 560L295 410C214 295 174 171 174 36C174-3 190-22 223-22C256-22 272-3 272 36L272 87C272 239 296 349 343 416Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(1,-1)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="\PageIndex{2}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="2}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" 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data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="2E" href="#MJX-125-NCM-N-2E"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1556,0)"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-125-NCM-N-32"></use></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="inline"><math data-latex="\PageIndex{2}" data-semantic-structure="(5 0 1 2 3 4)"><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="2}" data-semantic-type="punctuated" data-semantic-role="sequence" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="0,1,2,3,4" data-semantic-content="1,3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\PageIndex{2};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2 3 4" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="7" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:7" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">7</mn><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{.}"><mo data-latex="." data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="fullstop" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{.};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-operator="punctuated" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">.</mo></mrow><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="5" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true">2</mn></mrow></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container>: The Physical Properties of Typical Ionic Compounds and Covalent Molecular Substances</caption> <thead> <tr> <th style="text-align:center;">Ionic Compounds</th> <th style="text-align:center;">Covalent Molecular Substances</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Ionic Compounds" style="text-align:center;">hard solids</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Covalent Molecular Substances" style="text-align:center;">gases, liquids, or soft solids</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Ionic Compounds" style="text-align:center;">high melting points</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Covalent Molecular Substances" style="text-align:center;">low melting points</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Ionic Compounds" style="text-align:center;">nonvolatile</td> <td class="lt-chem-21703" data-th="Covalent Molecular Substances" style="text-align:center;">volatile</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <span id="Summary"></span><span id="Summary"></span><h2 class="lt-chem-21703">Summary</h2> <p class="lt-chem-21703">The atoms in chemical compounds are held together by attractive electrostatic interactions known as chemical bonds. Ionic compounds contain positively and negatively charged ions in a ratio that results in an overall charge of zero. The ions are held together in a regular spatial arrangement by electrostatic forces. Atoms or groups of atoms that possess a net electrical charge are called ions; they can have either a positive charge (cations) or a negative charge (anions). Ions can consist of one atom (monatomic ions) or several (polyatomic ions). The charges on monatomic ions of most main group elements can be predicted from the location of the element in the periodic table. 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