← all pages
2.06:_Carbohydrates
view live ↗
<p class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">Carbohydrates have the general molecular formula CH<sub><font size="2">2</font></sub>O, and thus were once thought to represent "hydrated carbon". However, the arrangement of atoms in carbohydrates has little to do with water molecules. Starch and cellulose are two common carbohydrates. Both are macromolecules with molecular weights in the hundreds of thousands. Both are polymers (hence "<strong>polysaccharides</strong>"); that is, each is built from repeating units, monomers, much as a chain is built from its links. The monomers of both starch and cellulose are the same: units of the sugar <strong>glucose</strong>.</p> <span id="Monosaccharides"></span><span id="Monosaccharides"></span><h2 style="background-color: unset;" class="lt-bio-3784">Monosaccharides</h2> <p class="mt-align-center lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">Three common sugars share the same molecular formula: C<sub><font size="2">6</font></sub>H<sub><font size="2">12</font></sub>O<sub><font size="2">6</font></sub>. Because of their six carbon atoms, each is a <strong>hexose</strong>. <img style="width: 666px; height: 179px;" class="internal" alt="Three chemical structures: caffeine (C8H10N4O2), cocaine (C17H21NO4), and nicotine (C10H14N2). Each structure depicts the arrangement of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms." loading="lazy" width="666px" height="179px" src="https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/5138/hexoses.png?revision=1&size=bestfit&width=666&height=179" /></p> <p class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">They are:</p> <ul> <li class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">glucose, "blood sugar", the immediate source of energy for cellular respiration</li> <li class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;"><strong>galactose</strong>, a sugar in milk (and yogurt)</li> <li class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;"><strong>fructose</strong>, a sugar found in honey</li> </ul> <p class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">Although all three share the same molecular formula (C<sub><font size="2">6</font></sub>H<sub><font size="2">12</font></sub>O<sub><font size="2">6</font></sub>), the arrangement of atoms differs in each case. Substances such as these three, which have identical molecular formulas but different structural formulas, are known as <strong>structural isomers</strong>. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are "single" sugars or <strong>monosaccharides</strong>. Two monosaccharides can be linked together to form a "double" sugar or <strong>disaccharide</strong>. </p> <span id="Disaccharides"></span><span id="Disaccharides"></span><h2 style="background-color: unset;" class="lt-bio-3784">Disaccharides</h2> <p class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">Three common disaccharides:</p> <ul> <li class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">sucrose — common table sugar = glucose + fructose</li> <li class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;"><strong>lactose</strong> — major sugar in milk = glucose + galactose</li> <li class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;"><strong>maltose</strong> — product of starch digestion = glucose + glucose</li> </ul> <p class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">Although the process of linking the two monomers is rather complex, the end result in each case is the loss of a hydrogen atom (H) from one of the monosaccharides and a hydroxyl group (OH) from the other. The resulting linkage between the sugars is called a <strong>glycosidic bond</strong>. The molecular formula of each of these disaccharides is</p> <p class="mt-align-center lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;"><mjx-container class="MathJax CtxtMenu_Attached_0" jax="SVG" overflow="linebreak" display="true" width="full" tabindex="0" ctxtmenu_counter="96" style="font-size: 85%; min-width: 47.525ex; position: relative;"><svg width="100%" height="2.262ex" role="img" focusable="false" data-mjx-viewbox="0 -750 21006.1 1000" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.566ex; min-width: 47.525ex;"><defs><path id="MJX-97-NCM-I-1D436" d="M148 218C148 346 204 476 267 548C318 607 406 666 505 666C609 666 660 587 660 479C660 470 657 438 657 429C657 420 663 415 676 415C681 415 685 416 688 417C693 424 696 431 698 438L760 691C760 700 755 705 745 705C741 705 735 701 727 692L662 619C623 676 568 705 497 705C442 705 388 692 333 667C222 615 141 533 89 421C63 366 50 310 50 253C50 173 75 108 126 56C177 4 242-22 322-22C401-22 473 7 538 64C565 87 588 115 607 146C634 191 648 222 648 241C648 250 643 255 632 255C623 255 618 251 616 242C595 177 562 125 517 88C460 41 400 17 338 17C218 17 148 98 148 218Z"></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-N-31" d="M269 666C228 624 168 603 89 603L89 564C141 564 184 572 217 588L217 82C217 64 213 52 204 47C195 42 170 39 130 39L95 39L95 0C120 2 174 3 257 3C340 3 394 2 419 0L419 39L384 39C343 39 318 42 310 47C302 52 297 64 297 82L297 636C297 660 295 666 269 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-N-32" d="M237 666C186 666 143 648 106 612C69 576 50 534 50 483C50 449 75 424 106 424C136 424 161 450 161 480C161 513 137 536 105 536C102 536 100 536 98 535C117 584 161 627 224 627C306 627 352 556 352 470C352 403 318 331 250 255L62 43C49 28 50 29 50 0L421 0L450 180L417 180C409 129 402 100 396 91C391 86 361 84 306 84L139 84L236 179C304 243 390 312 419 365C439 400 449 435 449 470C449 588 357 666 237 666Z"></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-N-2062" d=""></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-I-1D43B" d="M881 668C881 678 875 683 863 683L736 680L609 683C593 683 586 674 586 659C586 652 589 647 594 646C604 645 612 644 617 644C648 643 665 641 670 640C675 639 678 636 678 631C677 628 676 622 674 613L615 375L321 375L379 602C384 623 393 636 406 641C413 643 430 644 458 644C485 644 496 644 496 668C496 678 490 683 478 683L351 680L223 683C207 683 200 674 200 659C200 652 203 647 209 646C219 645 227 644 232 644C263 643 281 641 286 640C291 639 293 636 293 631C293 629 292 623 289 613L156 82C151 60 141 47 126 42C119 40 101 39 70 39C48 39 39 37 39 15C39 5 45 0 57 0L183 3L246 2C257 2 299 0 310 0C326 0 334 8 334 24C334 34 323 39 302 39C262 39 242 43 242 52C242 52 243 55 245 68L312 336L605 336L538 68C535 53 523 43 503 40C498 39 481 39 452 39C433 39 424 31 424 15C424 5 430 0 442 0L568 3L631 2C642 2 683 0 696 0C712 0 720 8 720 24C720 34 709 39 688 39C647 39 627 43 627 52C627 52 628 55 630 68L764 602C769 623 778 636 791 641C797 643 814 644 843 644C869 644 881 644 881 668Z"></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-N-2061" d=""></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-I-1D442" d="M702 263C727 320 740 377 740 435C740 513 717 577 670 628C623 679 561 705 484 705C431 705 378 692 325 666C217 613 138 529 87 415C62 359 49 303 49 246C49 167 72 103 119 53C166 3 228-22 306-22C358-22 410-9 463 16C572 69 651 152 702 263M644 474C644 341 584 208 520 129C476 74 400 12 312 12C205 12 149 105 149 218C149 253 156 300 169 357C196 475 264 579 353 633C396 659 438 672 478 672C586 672 644 586 644 474Z"></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-N-3D" d="M698 367L80 367C64 367 56 359 56 344C56 329 64 321 80 321L698 321C714 321 722 329 722 344C722 356 711 367 698 367M698 179L80 179C64 179 56 171 56 156C56 141 64 133 80 133L698 133C714 133 722 141 722 156C722 169 711 179 698 179Z"></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-N-36" d="M383 504C416 504 432 521 432 555C432 627 378 666 304 666C221 666 155 627 106 548C63 480 42 403 42 316C42 189 65 100 112 47C152 1 198-22 251-22C312-22 362 1 401 47C438 91 457 144 457 205C457 266 439 318 403 361C365 407 316 431 257 431C205 431 165 402 138 346L138 352C138 465 166 561 226 605C252 624 279 633 306 633C342 633 368 623 385 602C351 602 334 583 334 553C334 525 355 504 383 504M344 340C355 317 361 272 361 206C361 141 356 98 345 76C325 35 294 14 251 14C222 14 200 24 184 44C171 60 162 74 158 85C146 116 140 163 140 227C140 255 144 282 151 308C164 355 201 399 256 399C295 399 325 379 344 340Z"></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-N-2212" d="M698 270L80 270C64 270 56 263 56 250C56 237 64 230 80 230L698 230C714 230 722 237 722 250C722 262 710 270 698 270Z"></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-N-28" d="M318-248C327-248 332-243 332-234C332-231 330-227 327-223C275-183 233-117 202-26C175 53 161 131 161 208L161 292C161 369 175 447 202 526C233 617 275 683 327 723C330 726 332 730 332 734C332 743 327 748 318 748C317 748 314 747 311 745C251 699 201 631 160 540C121 453 101 371 101 292L101 208C101 129 121 47 160-40C201-131 251-199 311-245C314-247 317-248 318-248Z"></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-N-2E" d="M192 53C192 82 168 106 139 106C110 106 86 82 86 53C86 24 110 0 139 0C168 0 192 24 192 53Z"></path><path id="MJX-97-NCM-N-29" d="M78-245C138-199 188-131 229-40C268 47 288 129 288 208L288 292C288 371 268 453 229 540C188 631 138 699 78 745C75 747 72 748 71 748C62 748 57 743 57 734C57 730 59 726 62 723C114 683 156 617 187 526C214 447 228 369 228 292L228 208C228 131 214 53 187-26C156-117 114-183 62-223C59-227 57-231 57-234C57-243 62-248 71-248C72-248 75-247 78-245Z"></path></defs><g stroke="currentColor" fill="currentColor" stroke-width="0" transform="scale(0.021719,-0.021719) translate(0, -750)"><g data-mml-node="math" data-latex="C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} = 2 C_6H_{12}O_6 − H_2O" data-semantic-structure="(45 (44 (42 (37 (7 5 6) 36 (35 (10 8 9) 34 (13 11 12))) 14 (41 (40 15 38 (18 16 17) 39 (33 (21 19 20) 32 (24 22 23))) 25 (31 (28 26 27) 30 29))) (4 (3 0 1 2))))"><g data-mml-node="mtable" data-latex="C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} = 2 C_6 H_{12}O_6 − H_2 O" data-semantic-type="multiline" data-semantic-role="equality" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-id="45" data-semantic-children="44" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} = 2 C_6H_{12}O_6 − H_2O" data-semantic-owns="44" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(3634,0) translate(-3634,0)"><g transform="translate(0 750) matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0) scale(46.04)"><svg data-table="true" preserveaspectratio="xMidYMid" viewbox="6869 -750 1 1000"><g transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g data-mml-node="mlabeledtr" data-semantic-type="line" data-semantic-role="multiline" data-semantic-annotation="depth:2" data-semantic-id="44" data-semantic-children="42" data-semantic-content="4" data-semantic-parent="45" data-semantic-owns="42 4" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mtd"><g data-mml-node="mrow" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="relseq" data-semantic-role="equality" data-semantic-annotation="depth:3" data-semantic-id="42" data-semantic-children="37,41" data-semantic-content="14" data-semantic-parent="44" data-semantic-owns="37 14 41" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mrow" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="infixop" data-semantic-role="implicit" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:unit;depth:4" data-semantic-id="37" data-semantic-children="7,35" data-semantic-content="36" data-semantic-parent="42" data-semantic-owns="7 36 35" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="C_{12}" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:5" data-semantic-id="7" data-semantic-children="5,6" data-semantic-parent="37" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C_{12}" data-semantic-owns="5 6" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="C" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:6" data-semantic-id="5" data-semantic-parent="7" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D436" href="#MJX-97-NCM-I-1D436"></use></g><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" transform="translate(748,-150) scale(0.707)" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{12}"><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="12" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:6" data-semantic-id="6" data-semantic-parent="7" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{12};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-31"></use><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-32" transform="translate(500,0)"></use></g></g></g><g data-mml-node="mo" data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="multiplication" data-semantic-annotation="depth:5" data-semantic-id="36" data-semantic-parent="37" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="infixop,⁢" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1505.1,0)"><use data-c="2062" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-2062"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mrow" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="appl" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:5" data-semantic-id="35" data-semantic-children="10,13" data-semantic-content="34,8" data-semantic-parent="37" data-semantic-owns="10 34 13" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1505.1,0)"><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="H_{22}" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-id="10" data-semantic-children="8,9" data-semantic-parent="35" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H_{22}" data-semantic-owns="8 9" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="H" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:7" data-semantic-id="8" data-semantic-parent="10" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D43B" href="#MJX-97-NCM-I-1D43B"></use></g><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" transform="translate(864,-150) scale(0.707)" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{22}"><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="22" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-id="9" data-semantic-parent="10" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{22};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-32"></use><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-32" transform="translate(500,0)"></use></g></g></g><g data-mml-node="mo" data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="application" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:6" data-semantic-id="34" data-semantic-parent="35" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1621.1,0)"><use data-c="2061" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-2061"></use></g><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="O_{11}" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-id="13" data-semantic-children="11,12" data-semantic-parent="35" data-semantic-attributes="latex:O_{11}" data-semantic-owns="11 12" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1621.1,0)"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="O" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:7" data-semantic-id="11" data-semantic-parent="13" data-semantic-attributes="latex:O" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D442" href="#MJX-97-NCM-I-1D442"></use></g><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" transform="translate(796,-150) scale(0.707)" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{11}"><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="11" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-id="12" data-semantic-parent="13" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{11};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-31"></use><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-31" transform="translate(500,0)"></use></g></g></g></g></g><g data-mml-node="mo" data-latex="=" data-semantic-type="relation" data-semantic-role="equality" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:4" data-semantic-id="14" data-semantic-parent="42" data-semantic-attributes="latex:=" data-semantic-operator="relseq,=" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(4957.1,0)"><use data-c="3D" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-3D"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mrow" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="infixop" data-semantic-role="subtraction" data-semantic-annotation="depth:4" data-semantic-id="41" data-semantic-children="40,31" data-semantic-content="25" data-semantic-parent="42" data-semantic-owns="40 25 31" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(6012.9,0)"><g data-mml-node="mrow" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="infixop" data-semantic-role="implicit" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:unit;depth:5" data-semantic-id="40" data-semantic-children="15,18,33" data-semantic-content="38,39" data-semantic-parent="41" data-semantic-owns="15 38 18 39 33" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:6" data-semantic-id="15" data-semantic-parent="40" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-32"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mo" data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="multiplication" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-id="38" data-semantic-parent="40" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="infixop,⁢" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(500,0)"><use data-c="2062" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-2062"></use></g><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="C_6" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-id="18" data-semantic-children="16,17" data-semantic-parent="40" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C_6" data-semantic-owns="16 17" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(500,0)"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="C" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-id="16" data-semantic-parent="18" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D436" href="#MJX-97-NCM-I-1D436"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mn" transform="translate(748,-150) scale(0.707)" data-latex="6" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-id="17" data-semantic-parent="18" data-semantic-attributes="latex:6" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="36" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-36"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mo" data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="multiplication" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-id="39" data-semantic-parent="40" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="infixop,⁢" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1651.6,0)"><use data-c="2062" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-2062"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mrow" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="appl" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-id="33" data-semantic-children="21,24" data-semantic-content="32,19" data-semantic-parent="40" data-semantic-owns="21 32 24" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1651.6,0)"><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="H_{12}" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:7" data-semantic-id="21" data-semantic-children="19,20" data-semantic-parent="33" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H_{12}" data-semantic-owns="19 20" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="H" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:8" data-semantic-id="19" data-semantic-parent="21" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="7" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D43B" href="#MJX-97-NCM-I-1D43B"></use></g><g data-mml-node="TeXAtom" transform="translate(864,-150) scale(0.707)" data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{12}"><g data-mml-node="mn" data-latex="12" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:8" data-semantic-id="20" data-semantic-parent="21" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{12};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-level-number="7" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-31"></use><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-32" transform="translate(500,0)"></use></g></g></g><g data-mml-node="mo" data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="application" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:7" data-semantic-id="32" data-semantic-parent="33" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1621.1,0)"><use data-c="2061" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-2061"></use></g><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="O_6" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:7" data-semantic-id="24" data-semantic-children="22,23" data-semantic-parent="33" data-semantic-attributes="latex:O_6" data-semantic-owns="22 23" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1621.1,0)"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="O" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:8" data-semantic-id="22" data-semantic-parent="24" data-semantic-attributes="latex:O" data-semantic-level-number="7" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D442" href="#MJX-97-NCM-I-1D442"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mn" transform="translate(796,-150) scale(0.707)" data-latex="6" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:8" data-semantic-id="23" data-semantic-parent="24" data-semantic-attributes="latex:6" data-semantic-level-number="7" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="36" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-36"></use></g></g></g></g><g data-mml-node="mo" data-latex="−" data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="subtraction" data-semantic-annotation="depth:5" data-semantic-id="25" data-semantic-parent="41" data-semantic-attributes="latex:−" data-semantic-operator="infixop,−" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(4694.4,0)"><use data-c="2212" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-2212"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mrow" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="appl" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:5" data-semantic-id="31" data-semantic-children="28,29" data-semantic-content="30,26" data-semantic-parent="41" data-semantic-owns="28 30 29" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(5694.7,0)"><g data-mml-node="msub" data-latex="H_2" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-id="28" data-semantic-children="26,27" data-semantic-parent="31" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H_2" data-semantic-owns="26 27" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="H" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:7" data-semantic-id="26" data-semantic-parent="28" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="1D43B" href="#MJX-97-NCM-I-1D43B"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mn" transform="translate(864,-150) scale(0.707)" data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-id="27" data-semantic-parent="28" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-32"></use></g></g><g data-mml-node="mo" data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="application" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:6" data-semantic-id="30" data-semantic-parent="31" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1267.6,0)"><use data-c="2061" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-2061"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mi" data-latex="O" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:6" data-semantic-id="29" data-semantic-parent="31" data-semantic-attributes="latex:O" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(1267.6,0)"><use data-c="1D442" href="#MJX-97-NCM-I-1D442"></use></g></g></g></g></g></g></g></svg><svg data-labels="true" preserveaspectratio="xMaxYMid" viewbox="2834 -750 1 1000"><g data-labels="true" transform="matrix(1 0 0 -1 0 0)"><g data-mml-node="mtd" id="mjx-eqn:2.6.1" data-semantic-type="cell" data-semantic-role="label" data-semantic-annotation="depth:3" data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-children="3" data-semantic-parent="44" data-semantic-owns="3" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mrow" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="fenced" data-semantic-role="leftright" data-semantic-annotation="fences:paren;depth:4" data-semantic-id="3" data-semantic-children="1" data-semantic-content="0,2" data-semantic-parent="4" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true"><g data-mml-node="mtext" data-latex="\text{(}" data-semantic-type="fence" data-semantic-role="open" data-semantic-annotation="general:text;depth:5" data-semantic-id="0" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\text{(}" data-semantic-operator="fenced" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true"><use data-c="28" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-28"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mtext" data-latex="\text{2.6.1}" data-semantic-type="text" data-semantic-role="annotation" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:unit;depth:5" data-semantic-id="1" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\text{2.6.1}" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(389,0)"><use data-c="32" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-32"></use><use data-c="2E" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-2E" transform="translate(500,0)"></use><use data-c="36" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-36" transform="translate(778,0)"></use><use data-c="2E" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-2E" transform="translate(1278,0)"></use><use data-c="31" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-31" transform="translate(1556,0)"></use></g><g data-mml-node="mtext" data-latex="\text{)}" data-semantic-type="fence" data-semantic-role="close" data-semantic-annotation="general:text;depth:5" data-semantic-id="2" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\text{)}" data-semantic-operator="fenced" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true" transform="translate(2445,0)"><use data-c="29" href="#MJX-97-NCM-N-29"></use></g></g></g></g></svg></g></g></g></g></svg><mjx-assistive-mml unselectable="on" display="block"><math data-latex="C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} = 2 C_6H_{12}O_6 − H_2O" display="block" data-semantic-structure="(45 (44 (42 (37 (7 5 6) 36 (35 (10 8 9) 34 (13 11 12))) 14 (41 (40 15 38 (18 16 17) 39 (33 (21 19 20) 32 (24 22 23))) 25 (31 (28 26 27) 30 29))) (4 (3 0 1 2))))"><mtable displaystyle="true" data-latex="C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} = 2 C_6 H_{12}O_6 − H_2 O" data-semantic-type="multiline" data-semantic-role="equality" data-semantic-annotation="depth:1" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="44" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} = 2 C_6H_{12}O_6 − H_2O" data-semantic-owns="44" data-semantic-level-number="0" data-speech-node="true"><mlabeledtr data-semantic-type="line" data-semantic-role="multiline" data-semantic-annotation="depth:2" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="42" data-semantic-content="4" data-semantic-parent="45" data-semantic-owns="42 4" data-semantic-level-number="1" data-speech-node="true"><mtd data-semantic-type="cell" data-semantic-role="label" data-semantic-annotation="depth:3" data-semantic-id="4" data-semantic-children="3" data-semantic-parent="44" data-semantic-owns="3" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true"><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="fenced" data-semantic-role="leftright" data-semantic-annotation="fences:paren;depth:4" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="1" data-semantic-content="0,2" data-semantic-parent="4" data-semantic-owns="0 1 2" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true"><mtext data-latex="\text{(}" data-semantic-type="fence" data-semantic-role="open" data-semantic-annotation="general:text;depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\text{(}" data-semantic-operator="fenced" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true">(</mtext><mtext data-latex="\text{2.6.1}" data-semantic-type="text" data-semantic-role="annotation" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:unit;depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\text{2.6.1}" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true">2.6.1</mtext><mtext data-latex="\text{)}" data-semantic-type="fence" data-semantic-role="close" data-semantic-annotation="general:text;depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="3" data-semantic-attributes="latex:\text{)}" data-semantic-operator="fenced" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true">)</mtext></mrow></mtd><mtd><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="relseq" data-semantic-role="equality" data-semantic-annotation="depth:3" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="37,41" data-semantic-content="14" data-semantic-parent="44" data-semantic-owns="37 14 41" data-semantic-level-number="2" data-speech-node="true"><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="infixop" data-semantic-role="implicit" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:unit;depth:4" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="7,35" data-semantic-content="36" data-semantic-parent="42" data-semantic-owns="7 36 35" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true"><msub data-latex="C_{12}" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="5,6" data-semantic-parent="37" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C_{12}" data-semantic-owns="5 6" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="C" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="7" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true">C</mi><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{12}"><mn data-latex="12" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="7" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{12};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true">12</mn></mrow></msub><mo data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="multiplication" data-semantic-annotation="depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="37" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="infixop,⁢" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true">⁢</mo><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="appl" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="10,13" data-semantic-content="34,8" data-semantic-parent="37" data-semantic-owns="10 34 13" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true"><msub data-latex="H_{22}" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="8,9" data-semantic-parent="35" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H_{22}" data-semantic-owns="8 9" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="H" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="10" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">H</mi><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{22}"><mn data-latex="22" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="10" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{22};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">22</mn></mrow></msub><mo data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="application" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="35" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true">⁡</mo><msub data-latex="O_{11}" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="11,12" data-semantic-parent="35" data-semantic-attributes="latex:O_{11}" data-semantic-owns="11 12" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="O" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="13" data-semantic-attributes="latex:O" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">O</mi><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{11}"><mn data-latex="11" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="13" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{11};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">11</mn></mrow></msub></mrow></mrow><mo data-latex="=" data-semantic-type="relation" data-semantic-role="equality" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:4" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="42" data-semantic-attributes="latex:=" data-semantic-operator="relseq,=" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true">=</mo><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="infixop" data-semantic-role="subtraction" data-semantic-annotation="depth:4" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="40,31" data-semantic-content="25" data-semantic-parent="42" data-semantic-owns="40 25 31" data-semantic-level-number="3" data-speech-node="true"><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="infixop" data-semantic-role="implicit" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:unit;depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="15,18,33" data-semantic-content="38,39" data-semantic-parent="41" data-semantic-owns="15 38 18 39 33" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true"><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="40" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true">2</mn><mo data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="multiplication" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="40" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="infixop,⁢" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true">⁢</mo><msub data-latex="C_6" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="16,17" data-semantic-parent="40" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C_6" data-semantic-owns="16 17" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="C" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="18" data-semantic-attributes="latex:C" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">C</mi><mn data-latex="6" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="18" data-semantic-attributes="latex:6" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">6</mn></msub><mo data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="multiplication" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="40" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="infixop,⁢" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true">⁢</mo><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="appl" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="21,24" data-semantic-content="32,19" data-semantic-parent="40" data-semantic-owns="21 32 24" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><msub data-latex="H_{12}" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="19,20" data-semantic-parent="33" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H_{12}" data-semantic-owns="19 20" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="H" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:8" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="21" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="7" data-speech-node="true">H</mi><mrow data-mjx-texclass="ORD" data-latex="{12}"><mn data-latex="12" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:8" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="21" data-semantic-attributes="latex:{12};texclass:ORD" data-semantic-level-number="7" data-speech-node="true">12</mn></mrow></msub><mo data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="application" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="33" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">⁡</mo><msub data-latex="O_6" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-annotation="depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="22,23" data-semantic-parent="33" data-semantic-attributes="latex:O_6" data-semantic-owns="22 23" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="O" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:8" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="24" data-semantic-attributes="latex:O" data-semantic-level-number="7" data-speech-node="true">O</mi><mn data-latex="6" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:8" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="24" data-semantic-attributes="latex:6" data-semantic-level-number="7" data-speech-node="true">6</mn></msub></mrow></mrow><mo data-latex="−" data-semantic-type="operator" data-semantic-role="subtraction" data-semantic-annotation="depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="41" data-semantic-attributes="latex:−" data-semantic-operator="infixop,−" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true">−</mo><mrow data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-type="appl" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:5" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="28,29" data-semantic-content="30,26" data-semantic-parent="41" data-semantic-owns="28 30 29" data-semantic-level-number="4" data-speech-node="true"><msub data-latex="H_2" data-semantic-type="subscript" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-annotation="depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-children="26,27" data-semantic-parent="31" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H_2" data-semantic-owns="26 27" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true"><mi data-latex="H" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="simple function" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="28" data-semantic-attributes="latex:H" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">H</mi><mn data-latex="2" data-semantic-type="number" data-semantic-role="integer" data-semantic-font="normal" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;depth:7" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="28" data-semantic-attributes="latex:2" data-semantic-level-number="6" data-speech-node="true">2</mn></msub><mo data-semantic-type="punctuation" data-semantic-role="application" data-semantic-annotation="nemeth:number;depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="31" data-semantic-added="true" data-semantic-operator="appl" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true">⁡</mo><mi data-latex="O" data-semantic-type="identifier" data-semantic-role="latinletter" data-semantic-font="italic" data-semantic-annotation="clearspeak:simple;nemeth:number;depth:6" data-semantic-="" data-semantic-parent="31" data-semantic-attributes="latex:O" data-semantic-level-number="5" data-speech-node="true">O</mi></mrow></mrow></mrow></mtd></mlabeledtr></mtable></math></mjx-assistive-mml></mjx-container></p> <p class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">All sugars are very soluble in water because of their many hydroxyl groups. Although not as concentrated a fuel as fats, sugars are the most important source of energy for many cells. Carbohydrates provide the bulk of the calories (4 kcal/gram) in most diets, and starches provide the bulk of that. Starches are polysaccharides.</p> <span id="Polysaccharides"></span><span id="Polysaccharides"></span><h2 style="background-color: unset;" class="lt-bio-3784">Polysaccharides</h2> <p class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">There are three primary polysaccharide polymer systems of interest: Starches, Glycogen and Cellulose.</p> <span id="Starches"></span><span id="Starches"></span><h3 style="background-color: unset;" class="lt-bio-3784">Starches</h3> <p class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;"><img class="internal right" style="width: 320px; height: 122px; float: right;" alt="Diagram showing a chemical reaction sequence with blue hexagons connected by arrows. Each hexagon is labeled with chemical groups: CH3Br, CH3Cl, CH3I, C6H6, C6H5F, C6H5Cl, to C6H5Br." loading="lazy" width="320px" height="122px" src="https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/5139/starch.gif?revision=1&size=bestfit&width=320&height=122" />Starches are polymers of glucose. Two types are found:</p> <ul> <li class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;">amylose consists of linear, unbranched chains of several hundred glucose residues (units). The glucose residues are linked by a glycosidic bond between their #1 and #4 carbon atoms.</li> <li class="lt-bio-3784" style="background-color: unset;"><strong>amylopectin</strong> differs from amylose in being highly branched. At approximately every thirtieth residue along the chain, a short side chain is attached by a glycosidic bond to the #6 carbon atom (the carbon above the ring). The total number of glucose residues in a molecule of amylopectin is several thousand.</li> </ul> <figure><img style="width: 200px; height: 144px;" class="internal" alt="Black and white abstract image featuring clusters of overlapping, irregular oval shapes resembling bubbles or cells on a white background." loading="lazy" width="200px" height="144px" src="https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/5140/potato.gif?revision=1&size=bestfit&width=200&height=144" /> <img style="width: 482px; height: 135px;" class="internal" alt="Chemical structure of cellulose with repeating glucose units, labeled to differentiate cellulose and glucose segments." loading="lazy" width="482px" height="135px" src="https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/5141/amylase.gif?revision=1&size=bestfit&width=482&height=135" /> <span style="font-size:11px;"><em>Potato starch Amylase</em></span><figcaption>Figure 2.6.3: This electron micrograph (courtesy of R. D. Preston) shows the cellulose fibrils in the cell wall of a green alga. These long, rigid fibrils are a clear reflection of the nature of the cellulose molecules of which they are composed.</figcaption></figure> <footer class="mt-content-footer"> <style>/*<![CDATA[*/#mt-toc-container {display: none !important;}/*]]>*/</style><script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/ $(function() { if(!window['autoDefinitionList']){ window['autoDefinitionList'] = true; $('dl').find('dt').on('click', function() { $(this).next().toggle('350'); }); } });/*]]>*/</script> <script defer="true" src="https://static.cloudflareinsights.com/beacon.min.js" data-cf-beacon="{"token": "483ec2414e274209a7e93c253192df0b"}"></script><script src="https://cdn.libretexts.net/github/LibreTextsMain/Miscellaneous/h5p-resizer.js"></script><script src="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/iframe-resizer/4.2.11/iframeResizer.contentWindow.min.js" integrity="sha512-FOf4suFgz7OrWmBiyyWW48u/+6GaaAFSDHagh2EBu/GH/1+OQSYc0NFGeGeZK0gZ3vuU1ovmzVzD6bxmT4vayg==" crossorigin="anonymous"></script><script src="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/iframe-resizer/4.2.11/iframeResizer.min.js" integrity="sha512-HY1lApSG7xxx8mYzs/lxRs+c5AaDThRaa3pvQB6puiswvf2lWqMJVf+8qSGiL4ZXfHQoPIqbd1TlpqfycPo3cQ==" crossorigin="anonymous"></script><script>/*<![CDATA[*/window.addEventListener('load', function(){$('iframe').iFrameResize({warningTimeout:0, scrolling: 'omit'});})/*]]>*/</script><script>/*<![CDATA[*/ window.PageNum = "auto"; window.InitialOffset = "false"; window.PageName = "2.6: Carbohydrates"; /*]]>*/</script> <script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/ // var front = window.PageNum.trim(); if(front=="auto"){ front = window.PageName.replace('\"', '\\\"').trim(); //front = "'..string.matchreplace(PageName,'\"','\\\"')..'".trim(); if(front.includes(":")){ front = front.split(":")[0].trim(); if(front.includes(".")){ front = front.split("."); front = front.map((int)=>int.includes("0")?parseInt(int,10):int).join("."); } front+="."; } else { front = ""; } } front = front.trim(); function loadMathJaxScript() { try { const script = document.createElement('script'); script.id = "mathjax-script"; script.src = "https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/mathjax@4/tex-mml-svg.js"; script.type = "text/javascript"; script.defer = true; document.head.appendChild(script); } catch (err) { console.error(err); } } document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', (e) => { loadMathJaxScript(); }); if (window.PageName !== 'Realtime MathJax'){ MathJax = { options: { ignoreHtmlClass: "tex2jax_ignore", processHtmlClass: "tex2jax_process", menuOptions: { settings: { zscale: "150%", zoom: "Double-Click", assistiveMml: true, // true to enable assitive MathML collapsible: false, // true to enable collapsible math }, }, }, output: { scale: 0.85, mtextInheritFont: false, displayOverflow: "linebreak", linebreaks: { width: "100%", }, }, startup: { pageReady: () => { if (window.activateBeeLine) { window.activateBeeLine(); } return MathJax.startup.defaultPageReady(); }, }, chtml: { matchFontHeight: true, }, tex: { tags: "all", tagformat: { number: (n) => { if (window.InitialOffset) { const offset = Number(window.InitialOffset); if(!offset) { return front + n; // If offset is falsy (nan, undefined, etc.) } const added = Number(n) + offset; return front + added; } else { return front + n; } }, }, macros: { eatSpaces: ['#1', 2, ['', ' ', '\\endSpaces']], PageIndex: ['{' + front.replace(/\./g, '{.}') + '\\eatSpaces#1 \\endSpaces}', 1], test: ["{" + front + "#1}", 1], mhchemrightleftharpoons: "{\\unicode{x21CC}\\,}", xrightleftharpoons: ['\\mhchemxrightleftharpoons[#1]{#2}', 2, ''] }, packages: { "[+]": [ "mhchem", "color", "cancel", "ams", "tagformat" ], }, }, loader: { '[tex]/mhchem': { ready() { const {MapHandler} = MathJax._.input.tex.MapHandler; const mhchem = MapHandler.getMap('mhchem-chars'); mhchem.lookup('mhchemrightarrow')._char = '\uE42D'; mhchem.lookup('mhchemleftarrow')._char = '\uE42C'; } }, load: [ "[tex]/mhchem", "[tex]/color", "[tex]/cancel", "[tex]/tagformat", ], }, }; }; ///*]]>*/</script> <hr class="autoattribution-divider" /><div class="autoattribution"><p>This page titled <a target="_blank" class="internal mt-self-link" href="/Sandboxes/johnnyphung/biology/02:_The_Molecules_of_Life/2.06:_Carbohydrates">2.6: Carbohydrates</a> is shared under a <a rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0" target="_blank">CC BY 3.0</a> license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://www.biology-pages.info/">John W. Kimball</a> via <a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.biology-pages.info/" target="_blank">source content</a> that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform.</p></div> <script type="text/javascript">/*<![CDATA[*/ try { const pageTagsHolder = document.getElementById('pageTagsHolder'); if (pageTagsHolder) { const pageTagsRaw = pageTagsHolder.innerText; if (pageTagsRaw.includes('transcluded:yes')) { const attrSections = document.querySelectorAll('.autoattribution'); const attrDividers = document.querySelectorAll('.autoattribution-divider'); if (attrSections.length > 1 && attrDividers.length > 1) { /* Hide first AutoAttribution from transcluded page */ attrSections[0].style.display = 'none'; attrDividers[0].style.display = 'none'; } } } } catch (e) { console.error('[AutoAttribution Transclusion Removal] Error encountered!'); console.error(e); }/*]]>*/</script> <div id="librelens-attribution-list"></div></footer>
💾 Save to sandbox
Reset